关于仲裁制度的思考/齐汇

作者:法律资料网 时间:2024-07-07 10:56:02   浏览:8874   来源:法律资料网
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关于仲裁制度的思考

齐 汇清华大学法学院

任何一种具体的制度,包括我们所熟知的法律制度,在其发展、变迁和转换的过程中间都充满了来自于社会观念、意识形态、经济利益以及价值导向等一系列因素的干预和影响。用达尔文的进化论的观点来说,那些适应了这种社会转型所导致的逻辑变迁的制度和观念,经过人们的利益选择之后,自然的保留、生存下来,乃至在日后的生活实践中被人们屡试不爽,在自由选择中占据了市场,从而逐步地发展壮大。仲裁制度就是这样一种制度。其独特的性质决定了其生存和发展在现代商业社会的强劲趋势,几乎(而非完全)是一种市场化运作所形成的结果。在仲裁制度中,我们感受到的是充分的当事人意思自治和处理纠纷的公正性与效率性,其一方面比人民调解制度具有更高的专业性,另一方面较之法院的诉讼程序又具有成本低、速度快的特点,因此倍受现代社会尤其是商业领域纠纷解决机制的青睐,已经成为现代社会非诉纠纷解决的重要途径和制度出路。
就在不远的十几年前,经济体制改革给中国社会带来了具有历史性的重大变革。中国正从单一所有权关系、高度行政化的社会逐步转向市场经济、多元所有权关系、分权自治的社会类型。在所有制的结构形式上,虽然国有经济和集体经济还占有大头,但私营经济、个体经济已经逐渐成为国民经济的重要组成部分。而这种经济主体的多元化也必然导致利益主体的独立化和社会价值观念及其相关的意识形态领域的多元化。在市场逐步放开之后,原来被社会固有观念和政治意识形态禁锢了的“社会分子”在经济利益多元化的市场浪潮鼓动下,开始活跃起来。他们起初在某个社会特定的大环境下不断的运动,在运动和相互碰撞之间,激活了社会中的某些积极因素,随后导致的是整个社会的迅猛发展。在这种“社会分子”(社会中独立个体追求经济利益的某种愿望和动力)不断的无规则运动的状态下,必然导致其相互之间的激烈碰撞。这种碰撞索引发的后果就是社会矛盾(尤其是经济领域的商业纠纷)的迅速激增,而往往又由于“经济先行”或“经济学帝国主义”的观念导致我们的社会对于如何解决这些纠纷找不到合理的方式和途径,而社会的本体在需求上又要求我们(不光只有法律人)对于这种现象予以制度和方法上的回应,于是在供给与需求上出现了某种经济学家与法学家应当预想到而往往又被忽视或根本就没有预想到的结果,带来某种“学术无用”尴尬局面。
然而,用一种不太“后现代”的语境来分析和阐释这一社会问题,我们可以说:社会的发展和需求往往不因为人的因素而受到改变。在以经济交往为主要生活方式和符号系统的商业社会中,当再也不存在一个高于利益主体的人或组织像上帝那样为一切人们安排本属于他们自己的幸福时,就只有依靠彼此之间的协作,利用他人对于利益的追求来实现自己对于利益的追求。而这??却不仅仅是这??形成了我们今天已由应然转为自然的纠纷解决的“契约”观念。在这种“文明人的方式”的影响下,纠纷的解决由古代的沙场争战、刀光剑影、血洒疆场转变成为今天的调解、仲裁与诉讼。虽然我们认为通过暴力的纠纷解决在时效、方式和效果上往往具有低成本的优点,但是这种私力救济由于其极易引起刑事犯罪和激化社会矛盾,导致社会不安定因素的激增,故长期以来都受到民族国家的排斥和压制,也只有在某些极特殊的法定情形下(如正当防卫的场合),法律对于这种“以暴制暴”的行为才予以认可。
而在调解、仲裁与诉讼这三种纠纷解决的文明机制中,仲裁制度在市民社会和商业领域中往往较之另二者具有其独特的优势,当然也存在不足。与调解制度相比,仲裁往往具有较高的专业性。由于仲裁机关在市场运作中具有某种经济主体的性质,因此其必须通过聘请优秀的仲裁员对于每一个案件进行公正的裁决。在仲裁机关是由当事人双方共同选取的情况下,公正是仲裁机关赖以维系自己生命的唯一道德源泉,也是其付出得最多的道德成本。而这种对于仲裁“消费者”信赖关系的建立,必须通过对每一个案件的公正而无偏移的裁决,这样,也只有这样仲裁机关才能在市场化的运作中得以生存。实践证明,仲裁员往往由著名的学者,律师和专职仲裁员担任,这些人往往都受过良好的法学训练。在现今的中国,仲裁员的专业素质往往要高于法院的法官。这样,仲裁的结果无论在实质上还是形式上都容易形成一种“表面公正”,而在实质上是否公正则是另外一个问题。
当今社会是一个“诉讼爆炸”的社会,这不仅仅是因为“社会分子”在“受热”后的剧烈运动过程中碰撞的机会增加,更是因为人们都希望像秋菊一样“讨个说法”(当然,我并不认为案件的逻辑递增就一定预示着人们法律意识和观念的觉醒和提高)。可是,繁杂的诉讼程序,高额的诉讼成本,频繁的出庭应诉,使得诉讼已经成为当代社会的人们不论在经济还是精力上的“高消费”产品,甚至有人在写过《懒得离婚》之后还想写本《懒得诉讼》。虽然我们有学者在社会的剧烈变革与转型的关键时刻高喊“民事诉讼的契约化”,然而这种诉讼契约观念的建立毕竟不是在短期内说变就变的,也许??甚至可以肯定??我们还需要一个过程。而仲裁制度却走在了时代的前沿。仲裁制度实行一裁终局制,即一旦作出裁决就发生法律效力,没有特殊的理由不得推翻仲裁的裁决结果。这里便省去了诉讼中上诉审和再审程序繁杂和诉讼费用的诸多问题。其次,仲裁具有更大的选择性。仲裁当事人对于仲裁机构、仲裁员、审理方式等事项都可以进行选择,而不受到管辖权的限制。仲裁的审理往往是不公开审理,而这对于维护当事人社会形象和保守法人的某些商业秘密也具有其价值。但仲裁往往只涉及到平等社会主体(包括自然人、法人和其他社会组织)之间发生的合同纠纷和其他财产权益纠纷,对于涉及公民身体权、生命权等重大人身权利的案件,不由仲裁机关受理。因为保障人权往往是国家的任务,而仲裁机关往往只是对于涉及平等主体之间的经济利益进行重新分配,使社会的整体经济流转趋于稳定和平衡。在当今这个国际化的社会里,国际组织之间复杂的商业贸易活动十分频繁,这种繁荣的景象需要我们对于国际商事活动中所发生的纠纷提供一种共同的解决机制,对于各类国际商事纠纷适用共同的规则,从而屏蔽来自政府的各种压力和法院的地方保护主义倾向,在一个自由的环境中找寻正义与公平。在当今的中国社会里,我们每每说到正义与公平时总是带有某种来自政治因素的影响、总是在各种“禁区”之间寻找“现代法治的出路”。诉讼的进程因为受到太多的“地方性”因素的影响,从导致判决的正义往往只是种“过得去的正义”。当然,我这样说并不是想否定“地方性”这个热门的词汇。正如霍姆斯所说的:“每个人在其实践中注定都是地方性的”。这样比较的意义只是希望能够进一步说明仲裁制度的纯粹性与排除其他因素影响的技术性,因此在这样的语境下不存在任何带有感情色彩的判断,目的只是为了说明问题。
仲裁制度的建立是社会契约机制发展的必然结果。因为一旦案件牵涉到诉讼,无论是民事、刑事还是行政案件,总是会自觉不自觉的牵涉到关于国家利益和宏观视野的大局问题。因此,为了回避这些非契约性因素的影响,平等的商业交易主体之间通过这种非诉解决纠纷的契约来找寻纠纷解决的捷径。双方当事人通过在订立契约中扩大对方抗辩权的方法来换取纠纷解决的迅捷化和低成本化,而这往往对于双方当事人都是有益的,至少在可预见的范围内减少交易的边际成本和沉没成本,从而为双方在纠纷解决的过程中谋求某种程度上的实际收益。


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市人民政府关于印发《十堰市军人优待金社会统筹暂行办法》的通知

湖北省十堰市人民政府


市人民政府关于印发《十堰市军人优待金社会统筹暂行办法》的通知

十政发[1996]55号
各县市区入民政府,白浪开发区管委会,市政府各部门,各县级事业单位,驻市各单位,各
大中型企业:
  《十堰市军人优待金社会统筹暂行办法》已经市政府常务会议审查同意,现予印发,请
遵照执行。

                           一九九六年八月三十一日

             十堰市军人优待金社会统筹暂行办法

  第一条 为增强全民双拥意识和国防观念,弘扬“拥军优属、人人有责”的精神,进一
步做好拥军优属工作,根据《宪法》、《兵役法》、《军人抚恤优待条例》特制定本办法。
  第二条 实行优待金社会统筹公民负担。辖区所有国家机关、企事业单位、人民团体的
干部职工及城乡村(居)民、个体工商户(不含伤残军人和享受定期抚恤及丧失劳动能力又无
收入来源的人员、五保户及市以上各级政府另有规定不缴者),都应当依照本办法缴纳统筹
优待金。
  第三条 各级人民政府领导辖区优待金社会统筹工作,各级民政部门主管辖区优待金社
会统筹工作,并负责检查督促本办法的实施。
  第四条 统筹标准实行分层次确定,统一收缴。
  (一)除第二条外的辖区所有机关、团体、企事业单位的干部职工(含离退休人员)每人
每年按10元收取;
  (二)无固定收入的城镇公民每人每年按5元收取;
  (三)个体工商户每人每年按10元收取;
  (四)农村人口的收费标准,由所在乡镇、街办在农民负担5%之内提取。
  在完成上述统筹收取比例的基础上,鼓励单位、个人自愿多交。
  第五条 优待金社会统筹按隶属关系或划片包干等方式方法筹集,分级负责,一次到位
。具体办法由各县、市、区制定。
  第六条 各负责统筹优待金的单位应于每年7月底前完成统收任务。
  第七条 优待金的使用:
  (一)优待辖区内义务兵家属;
  (二)对生活困难的烈属、伤残军人、老复员军人、带病回乡退伍军人给予适当优待;
  第八条 优待金的兑现,由户口所在地的乡、镇、街办于每年第一季度编制优待金方案
,并报县、市、区民政局审批,县、市、区民政局10月底将优待金一次性划拨到负责兑现的
乡、镇、街办。各乡、镇、街办于12月底前直接兑现到优抚对象手中。
  第九条 优待金发放统一使用《军人优待金兑现三联单》。第一联由各乡、镇、街办存
查,第二联报县、市、区民政局存查,第三联寄往义务兵所在部队(其他优抚对象交本人)。
  第十条 各级民政部门在每年优待金兑现完毕后,应及时编制预决算执行情况,报同级
人民政府和上级主管部门。
  第十一条 各级民政部门分别建立优待金统筹专帐,专户储存,实行专款专用,任何单
位和个人不得将统筹金挪作它用。
  第十二条 优待金的使用,接受同级财政部门监督和审计部门的审计。若发现违纪行为
,应视其情节轻重,由有关部门分别给予批评教育和行政处分,触犯刑律的提交司法机关追
究其刑事责任。
  第十三条 在社会统筹工作中成绩显著的单位和个人,各级人民政府应给予表彰和奖
励。
  第十四条 各县、市、区根据本办法制定实施细则和管理办法;
  第十五条 本办法由市民政局负责解释。
  第十六条 本办法自 1997年1月1日起实施。



国家税务总局关于境外团体或个人在我国从事文艺及体育演出有关税收问题的通知(附英文)

国家税务总局


国家税务总局关于境外团体或个人在我国从事文艺及体育演出有关税收问题的通知(附英文)
国家税务总局



各省、自治区、直辖市、计划单列市税务局、文化厅(局)、体委:
一九九三年九月二十日我局与文化部、国家体委联合下发了国税发〔1993〕089号《关于来我国从事文艺演出及体育表演收入应严格依照税法规定征税的通知》,现对外国及港、澳、台地区团体或个人在我国(大陆)从事文艺演出和体育表演所取得收入征税的具体政策业务问题
,明确如下:
一、外国或港、澳、台地区演员、运动员以团体名义在我国(大陆)从事文艺、体育演出,对该演出团体及其演员或运动员个人取得的收入,应按照以下规定征税:
(一)对演出团体应依照《中华人民共和国营业税暂行条例》(以下简称营业税暂行条例)的有关规定,以其全部票价收入或者包场收入减去付给提供演出场所的单位、演出公司或经纪人的费用后的余额为营业额,按3%的税率征收营业税。
(二)演出团体凡能够提供完整、准确费用支出凭证的,依照《中华人民共和国外商投资企业和外国企业所得税法》(以下简称企业所得税法)的有关规定,应对演出团体的收入总额减除实际支出的费用后的余额,按30%的税率征收企业所得税,并按3%的税率征收地方所得税;对
演出团体实际支付给演员或运动员个人的报酬部分,依照《中华人民共和国个人所得税法》(以下简称个人所得税法)的有关规定征收个人所得税。
(三)演出团体不能提供完整、准确的费用支出凭证,不能正确计算应纳税所得额的,在计算征收企业所得税时,根据企业所得税法实施细则第十六条规定的原则,应以其收入总额减除支付给演员、运动员个人的报酬部分和相当于收入总额30%的其他演出费用后的余额,依照企业所
得税法规定的税率征收企业所得税和地方所得税;对上述支付给演员、运动员个人的报酬部分,依照个人所得税法的规定,由演出团体支付报酬时代扣代缴个人所得税。对没有申报支付给演员、运动员个人报酬额的或未履行代扣代缴义务的,应以其收入总额减除上述相当于收入总额30%
的其他演出费用的余额视为该演出团体的应纳税所得额,依照企业所得税法计算征收企业所得税和地方所得税。对演员或运动员个人不再征收个人所得税。
(四)对本条第(二)、(三)款中所述演出团体支付给演员、运动员个人的报酬,凡是演员、运动员属于临时聘请,不是该演出团体雇员的,应依照个人所得税法的规定,按劳务报酬所得,减除规定费用后,征收个人所得税;凡是演员、运动员属该演出团体雇员的,应依照个人所得
税法的规定,按工资、薪金所得,减除规定费用后,征收个人所得税。
二、对外国或港、澳、台地区演员、运动员以个人名义在我国(大陆)从事演出、表演所取得的收入,应以其全部票价收入或者包场收入减去支付给提供演出场所的单位、演出公司或者经纪人的费用后的余额为营业额,依3%的税率征收营业税;依照个人所得税法的有关规定,按劳务
报酬所得征收个人所得税。
三、对演出团体或个人应向演出所在地主管税务机关申报缴纳应纳税款的,具体可区别以下情况处理:
(一)演出团体及个人应缴纳的营业税,应以其在一地的演出收入,依照营业税暂行条例的有关规定,向演出所在地主管税务机关申报缴纳。
(二)演出团体应缴纳的企业所得税和地方所得税,应以其在一地的演出收入,依照企业所得税法及其实施细则和本通知的有关规定,计算应纳税所得额及税款,并向演出所在地主管税务机关申报缴纳。按本通知第一条第二款所述依实际费用支出计算纳税的演出团体,在全部演出活动
结束后,可在与其签订演出合同的中方接待单位所在地主管税务机关,办理企业所得税结算手续。
(三)演员、运动员个人应缴纳的个人所得税,应以其在一地演出所得报酬,依照个人所得税法的有关规定,在演出所在地主管税务机关申报缴纳。属于劳务报酬所得的,在一地演出多场的,以在一地多场演出取得的总收入为一次收入,计算征收个人所得税。
(四)主管税务机关可以指定各承包外国、港、澳、台地区演出、表演活动的演出场、馆、院或中方接待单位,在其向演出团体、个人结算收入中代扣代缴该演出团体或个人的各项应纳税款。凡演出团体或个人未在演出所在地结清各项应纳税款的,其中方接待单位应在对外支付演出收
入时代扣代缴该演出团体或个人所欠应纳税款。对于未按本通知有关规定代扣代缴应纳税款的单位,应严格依照《中华人民共和国税收征收管理法》的规定予以处理。
四、各中方接待单位在对外签订演出或表演合同后的七日内,应将合同、资料报送各有关演出、表演活动所在地主管税务机关,对于逾期不提供合同资料的,可依照企业所得税法及有关法规予以处理。
本通知自文到之日起执行。

CIRCULAR ON THE QUESTION CONCERNING TAX ON ARTISTIC AND SPORT PER-FORMANCES GIVEN BY OVERSEAS TROUPES OR INDIVIDUALS IN CHINA

(State Administration of Taxation: 21 April 1994 Coded Guo Shui Fa[1994] No. 106)

Whole Doc.

To the tax bureaus of various provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities and cities with independent planning, to cultural
departments (bureaus) and to State Commission for Physical Culture and
Sports:

The Circular Concerning the Levy of Tax Strictly in Accordance With
the Stipulations of the Tax Law on the Incomes Gained From Artistic and
Sports Performances Given in China, was issued on September 20, 1993
jointly by our Administration, the Ministry of Culture and the State
Commission for Sports and Physical Culture, a document Coded Guo Shui Fa
[1993] No. 089. The concrete policy-related business questions concerning
tax levied on the incomes gained from artistic and sports performances
staged in China (Chinese Mainland) by troupes or individuals coming from
abroad and from the regions of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan are hereby
clarified as follows:

I. For performers and athletes from abroad or from the regions of
Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan who stage artistic and sports performances in
China (Chinese mainland) in the name of organization; tax shall be levied
on the incomes gained by art troupes and their performers or by individual
athletes in accordance with the following stipulations:
(1) In line with the related stipulations of the Provisional
Regulations of the People's Republic of China Concerning Business Tax
(hereinafter referred to as Provisional Regulations Concerning Business
Tax), after subtracting the expenses paid to the units, performing
companies or brokers who provide performing venus from all income gained
from ticket price or from booking the whole theatre or stadium, the
balance shall be regarded as the business volume on which business tax is
levied at a 3 percent rate.
(2) For performing troupes which can provide complete and accurate
certificates showing their outlay of expenses, according to the related
stipulations of the Income Tax Law of the People's Republic of China on
enterprise with foreign investment and Foreign Enterprises (hereinafter
referred to as Enterprise Income Tax Law), enterprise income tax shall be
levied at a 30 percent rate on the balance of the performing troupes'
total income amount after subtracting the expenses actually paid and local
income tax shall be levied at a 3 percent rate; individual income tax
shall be levied on the remuneration actually paid by the performing
troupes to individual performers or athletes in accordance with the
related stipulations of the Individual Income Tax Law of the People's
Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as Individual Income Tax Law).
(3) For performing troupes which cannot provide complete and accurate
certificates showing the outlay of expenses and cannot correctly calculate
the amount of taxable income, while calculating and levying enterprise
income tax, in accordance with the principle stipulated in Article 16 of
the Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Enterprise Income Tax
Law, enterprise income tax and local income tax shall be levied at the tax
rate stipulated in the Enterprise Income Tax Law on the balance of their
total income amount after subtracting the remuneration paid to individual
performers and athletes and other performing expenses equivalent to 30
percent of the total income value; with regard to the remuneration paid to
individual performers and athletes as mentioned above, individual income
tax shall be withheld by the performing troupe when it pays the
remuneration in accordance with the stipulations as set in the Individual
Income Tax Law, with regard to performing troupes which have not declared
the amount of payments of remuneration to individual performers and
athletes or fail to fulfill the withholding obligations, the balance of
their total income value after subtracting other performing expenses
equivalent to 30 percent of the total value of income as mentioned above
should be regarded as the amount of payable income of that performing
troupe, enterprise income tax and local income tax shall be calculated and
levied in accordance with the Enterprise Income Tax Law. No more
individual income tax shall be levied on individual performer or athletes.

(4) In regard to the remunerations paid by the performing troupe as
mentioned in Clauses 2 and 3 of this Article to individual performers and
athletes, the performers and athletes who are invited temporarily and are
not employees of the performing troupe, individual income tax shall be
levied on the income from labor service remuneration after subtracting the
prescribed expenses in accordance with the stipulations of the Individual
Income Tax Law; for performers and athletes who belong to employees of the
performing troupe, individual income tax shall be levied on the wage and
salary incomes after subtracting the prescribed expenses in accordance
with the stipulations of the Individual Income Tax Law.

II. For the incomes gained from performances staged in China (Chinese
Mainland) by performers or athletes from abroad or from Hong Kong, Macao
and Taiwan in personal name, the balance of incomes from all ticket price
or from booking whole theatre or venues after subtracting the expenses
paid to units, performing companies or brokers who provide performing
venus is regarded as the business volume on which business tax shall be
levied at a 3 percent rate; in line with the related stipulations of the
Individual Income Tax Law, individual income tax shall be levied on the
income from labor service remunerations.

III. With regard to performing troupes or individuals who should
declared payments of payable tax to competent tax authorities in the
location where performances are staged, the matter shall be dealt with
concretely in accordance with the following different situations:
(1) Performing troupe and individuals shall pay business tax, they
shall declare payment of business tax to the competent tax authorities in
the location where performances are staged on the income from performances
staged at one locality in accordance with related stipulations of the
Provisional Regulations on Business Tax.
(2) For the enterprise income tax and local income tax which the
performing troupe should pay, the amount of taxable income and tax payment
are calculated on the basis of the income from performances staged in one
locality in accordance with the related stipulations of the Enterprise
Income Tax Law and the Detailed Rules for its Implementation and this
Circular, the performing troupe shall declare tax payment to competent tax
authorities at the location where performances are staged. The performing
troupe which calculates tax payment on the basis of the outlay of actual
expenses as mentioned in Clause 2 of Article 1 of this Circular shall,
after the end of all performing activities, perform the procedures for
settlement of enterprise income tax with the competent tax authorities at
the location of Chinese reception unit with whom it signs the performing
contract.
(3) For the individual income tax which performers and athletes
should pay, they shall declared tax payment with competent tax authorities
at the location where performances are staged in accordance with the
related stipulations of the Individual Income Tax Law for the
remunerations gained from performances given at one locality. For income
belonging to labor service remuneration and performances staged on several
occasions at one locality, the total income gained from performances given
on several occasions at one locality is regarded as a lump sum income on
which individual income tax is calculated and levied.

(4) Competent tax authorities can designate various venues, halls,
theatres or Chinese reception units to contract to provide spaces for the
performing activities staged by performing troupes or individuals from
abroad, or from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, they should withhold various
payable taxes for the performing troupes or individuals from the incomes
settled with these troupes and individuals. If the performing troupes or
individuals who have not yet cleared off various payable taxes in the
locality where performances are staged, when paying for the income from
performances to other units, the Chinese reception units should withhold
the payable tax owed by the performing troupes or individuals. Units which
fail to withhold the payable tax in accordance with the related
stipulations of this Circular shall be dealt with strictly in accordance
with the stipulations of the Tax Collection and Management Law of the
People's Republic of China.

IV. Various Chinese reception units shall, within seven days after
signing performance contracts with units from outside, send the contracts
and materials to competent tax authorities at the location where
performing activities are staged, those who fail to provide contracts and
materials by exceeding the time limit shall be dealt with in accordance
with the Enterprise Income Tax Law and related regulations.
This Circular goes into effect from the day of receipt of the
document.



1994年4月21日